Jerusalem predates any Hebrew, Israelite, or Jewish identity

(cut & paste from PALESTINIAN HISTORIOGRAPHICAL RESEARCH Facebook group - 27K followers) 

Introduction

Jerusalem was not founded by Hebrews, Israelites, or Jews. It already existed as a consolidated urban settlement with walls, water systems, and a proper name (Urušalim / Rushalimum) long before these groups appeared in the Levant (Liverani, 2013). Archaeology traces it back to the 3rd millennium BCE, and it becomes established as a city-state in the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2000–1550 BCE) within the Canaanite world (Maeir, 2011). This places it 8–12 centuries before the proto-Israelite confederations in the highlands (12th–11th centuries BCE) (Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001).

This analysis uses only archaeological, epigraphic, and linguistic evidence from primary sources. It does not consider later theological narratives. Jerusalem precedes and does not derive from any ancient Jewish identity; attributions to Hebrews/Israelites are retrospective constructions with no basis in its initial phases (Dever, 2001).

1. Criteria for speaking of “foundation” in the ancient Levant

Foundation is determined by tangible evidence, not by legends (Liverani, 2013):

– Stratigraphic sequence of permanent occupation (abundant ceramics, continuous structures, economic activity).

– Developed urban infrastructure (walls, hydraulic systems, fortified gates, territorial control).

– Contemporary mentions in administrative or diplomatic texts.

Jerusalem meets all three from the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3500–2000 BCE), with a peak in the Middle Bronze Age as a regional fortified city (Maeir, 2011; Reich & Shukron, 2010; Steiner, 2001). Linking its origin to Hebrews/Israelites ignores chronology: these groups leave no material footprint until Iron I (ca. 1200–1000 BCE), and only in hilltop villages, not in cities like Jerusalem (Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001).

2. Archaeological evidence: Canaanite continuity since the 3rd millennium BCE

In the City of David (the original core) there is uninterrupted occupation from the Late Chalcolithic / Early Bronze Age (ca. 4000–3000 BCE) (Kenyon, 1974; Steiner, 2001). In the Middle Bronze Age it becomes a full-fledged city:

– Massive wall 4–6 m thick protecting the Gihon Spring (Reich & Shukron, 2010).

– Advanced hydraulic systems (shafts, tunnels, channels) typical of Canaanite cities (Shiloh, 1984).

– Dense housing, storage facilities, and trade with Egypt and the Levant (Maeir, 2011).

Cultural continuity persists through the Late Bronze Age and beyond without major breaks (Shiloh, 1984; Reich & Shukron, 2010; Steiner, 2001). Pottery, figurines, and architecture are purely Canaanite; there are no indications of invasion or mass Hebrew/Israelite arrival (Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001; Kenyon, 1974; Maeir, 2011).

3. Earliest inhabitants: Canaanites and Jebusites (no Hebrew/Israelite link)

Original population: West Semitic Canaanites in city-states, with polytheistic religion and mixed economy (Liverani, 2013). In the Late Bronze Age and early Iron I: Jebusites, an indigenous pre-Israelite Canaanite subgroup (Van der Toorn et al., 1999; Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001).

They were not Hebrews (no connection with habiru/apiru; Lemche, 1998), nor Israelites (no Yahwistic highland cult; Dever, 2001), nor Jews (Judaism emerges later; Thompson, 1999). They venerated deities such as El, Baal, Asherah, and probably Šalim (linked to the city’s name; Van der Toorn et al., 1999).

Second-millennium BCE defenses (Middle Bronze wall, possible Millo, Gihon system) are local Canaanite tradition (Reich & Shukron, 2010; Maeir, 2011). There are no violent conquests; only gradual evolution (Dever, 2001; Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001).

4. Earliest attestations of the name “Jerusalem”

Egyptian Execration Texts (19th–18th centuries BCE): Rushalimum as an enemy city (Na'aman, 1994; Liverani, 2013).

Amarna Letters (14th century BCE): ʿAbdi-Ḫeba rules Urušalim (URU ú-ru-sa-lim), an Egyptian vassal threatened by habiru (Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001; Liverani, 2013). Language: diplomatic Akkadian, not Hebrew (Lemche, 1998).

The name and political entity exist from at least the 19th century BCE, centuries before any Hebrew/Israelite presence (Liverani, 2013).

5. Linguistic origin of the toponym

Derived from Canaanite Urušalim (Van der Toorn et al., 1999):

– “Uru/Ur” = “city” (common Semitic; Thompson, 1992).

– “Šalim/Šalem” = Canaanite twilight deity (twin of Šaḥar; Van der Toorn et al., 1999).

Meaning: “City of Šalim” or “Foundation of Šalim” (verb yrw/ywr = to found; Thompson, 1992). Unrelated to Hebrew “shalom” or “yir'eh” (later interpretations without comparative basis; Dever, 2001). A purely Canaanite, pre-Israelite, and polytheistic origin (Liverani, 2013).

6. Later appropriation: myth vs. history

The idea of foundation/conquest by David arises in texts of the 7th century BCE, exile, and Persian period (Thompson, 1999; Lemche, 1998). There is no archaeological evidence of cultural rupture, mass conquest, or demographic change in Iron I–IIA (Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001; Dever, 2001).

Jerusalem remains a modest Canaanite/Jebusite city until Iron IIB–C (8th–7th centuries BCE), when it incorporates elements from the highlands (Liverani, 2013). Structures from the 10th century BCE (if they exist) do not alter the prior Canaanite existence (Mazar, 2009; Maeir, 2011). Attributing the foundation to Israelites is theological myth and retrospective identity, not empirical history (Thompson, 1999; Na'aman, 1994).

Conclusion

Jerusalem predates Hebrew, Israelite, or Jewish identities by centuries/millennia due to:

– Archaeology (Canaanite continuity since the 3rd millennium; Reich & Shukron, 2010),

– Epigraphy (Execration Texts and Amarna; Na'aman, 1994),

– Linguistics (“City of Šalim”; Van der Toorn et al., 1999).

It was a fortified Canaanite city-state when those groups did not yet exist (Finkelstein & Silberman, 2001). Contrary narratives are ideological retroprojections without primary basis (Dever, 2001). This does not deny its later role in Judaism, but separates myth from fact and dismantles exclusivist foundational claims (Lemche, 1998; Liverani, 2013).

References

Dever, W. G. (2001). What did the biblical writers know and when did they know it? What archaeology can tell us about the reality of ancient Israel. Eerdmans.

Finkelstein, I., & Silberman, N. A. (2001). The Bible unearthed… Free Press.

Kenyon, K. M. (1974). Digging up Jerusalem. Ernest Benn.

Lemche, N. P. (1998). The Israelites in history and tradition. Westminster John Knox Press.

Liverani, M. (2013). The ancient Near East… Routledge.

Maeir, A. M. (2011). The archaeology of early Jerusalem. In … (pp. 171–188). Society of Biblical Literature.

Mazar, E. (2009). The palace of King David… Shoham Academic Research and Publication.

Na'aman, N. (1994). The “Conquest of Canaan”… In … (pp. 218–281). Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi.

Reich, R., & Shukron, E. (2010). Excavations in the City of David. Israel Exploration Journal, 60(2), 113–160.

Shiloh, Y. (1984). Excavations at the City of David I… Qedem 19.

Steiner, M. L. (2001). Excavations by Kathleen M. Kenyon… Vol. III. Sheffield Academic Press.

Thompson, T. L. (1992). Early history of the Israelite people… Brill.

Thompson, T. L. (1999). The mythic past… Basic Books.

Van der Toorn, K., Becking, B., & Van der Horst, P. W. (Eds.). (1999). Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible (2nd ed.). Brill.

-ooOoo—